Performance of a multidisciplinary team and the impact of bundles for reducing health care associated infections in adult intensive care unit: 22 years of experience.

A retrospective cohort study was conducted to evaluate the bundle of techniques developed by the multidisciplinary team to minimize infections in an adult intensive care unit over a 22-year span. Two periods were analyzed: 1996-2006 and 2007-2017. Bloodstream infections, urinary tract infections, and ventilator-associated pneumonia declined 58.6%, 56.7%, and 82.6%, respectively (P < .05) from 2007 to 2017 compared with these same infections during 1996-2006.

Risk factors for mortality in ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis: a case-control study.

Objective: To describe the microbiological characteristics and to assess the risk factors for mortality of ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis in a case-control study of intensive care patients. Methods: This case-control study was conducted over a 6-year period in a 40-bed medical-surgical intensive care unit in a tertiary care, private hospital in São Paulo, Brazil. Case patients were identified using the Nosocomial Infection Control Committee database. For the analysis of risk factors, matched control subjects were selected from the same institution at a 1:8.8 ratio, between January 2006 and December 2011. Results: A total of 40 episodes of ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis were evaluated in 40 patients in the intensive care unit, and 354 intensive care patients who did not experience tracheobronchitis were included as the Control Group. During the 6-year study period, a total of 42 organisms were identified (polymicrobial infections were 5%) and 88.2% of all the microorganisms identified were Gram-negative. Using a logistic regression model, we found the following independent risk factors for mortality in ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis patients: Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation I score (odds ratio 1.18 per unit of score; 95%CI: 1.05-1.38; p=0.01), and duration of mechanical ventilation (odds ratio 1.09 per day of mechanical ventilation; 95%CI: 1.03-1.17; p=0.004). Conclusion: Our study provided insight into the risk factors for mortality and microbiological characteristics of ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis.

Objetivo: Descrever as características microbiológicas e avaliar os fatores de risco para mortalidade na traqueobronquite associada à ventilação mecânica em um estudo caso-controle de pacientes de terapia intensiva. Métodos: Estudo realizado ao longo de 6 anos em uma unidade de terapia intensiva médico-cirúrgica de 40 leitos, em um hospital privado e de nível terciário em São Paulo, Brasil. O Grupo Caso foi identificado usando o banco de dados da Comissão de Controle de Infecção Hospitalar. O Grupo Controle foi pareado na proporção de 1:8,8 entre janeiro de 2006 e dezembro de 2011. Resultados: Quarenta episódios de traqueobronquites associadas à ventilação foram avaliados em 40 pacientes na unidade de terapia intensiva, e 354 pacientes não apresentaram traqueobronquite Grupo Controle. Foram identificados 42 microrganismos (dos quais 5% foram infecções polimicrobianas), sendo que 88,2% de todos os microrganismos eram bactérias Gram-negativas. Usando um modelo de regressão logística, encontramos os seguintes fatores de risco independentes para mortalidade em pacientes com traqueobronquites associadas à ventilação: pontuação da Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation I (odds ratio 1,18 por uma unidade de pontuação; IC95%: 1,05-1,38; p=0,01) e duração da ventilação mecânica (odds ratio 1,09 por dia de ventilação mecânica; IC95%: 1,03-1,17; p=0,004). Conclusão: Nosso estudo forneceu informações sobre os fatores de risco para mortalidade e características microbiológicas da traqueobronquite associada à ventilação mecânica.

Risk factors for mortality in ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis: a case-control study / Fatores de risco para mortalidade em traqueobronquite associada à ventilação mecânica: estudo caso-controle

ABSTRACT Objective To describe the microbiological characteristics and to assess the risk factors for mortality of ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis in a case-control study of intensive care patients. Methods This case-control study was conducted over a 6-year period in a 40-bed medical-surgical intensive care unit in a tertiary care, private hospital in São Paulo, Brazil. Case patients were identified using the Nosocomial Infection Control Committee database. For the analysis of risk factors, matched control subjects were selected from the same institution at a 1:8.8 ratio, between January 2006 and December 2011. Results A total of 40 episodes of ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis were evaluated in 40 patients in the intensive care unit, and 354 intensive care patients who did not experience tracheobronchitis were included as the Control Group. During the 6-year study period, a total of 42 organisms were identified (polymicrobial infections were 5%) and 88.2% of all the microorganisms identified were Gram-negative. Using a logistic regression model, we found the following independent risk factors for mortality in ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis patients: Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation I score (odds ratio 1.18 per unit of score; 95%CI: 1.05-1.38; p=0.01), and duration of mechanical ventilation (odds ratio 1.09 per day of mechanical ventilation; 95%CI: 1.03-1.17; p=0.004). Conclusion Our study provided insight into the risk factors for mortality and microbiological characteristics of ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis.

RESUMO Objetivo Descrever as características microbiológicas e avaliar os fatores de risco para mortalidade na traqueobronquite associada à ventilação mecânica em um estudo caso-controle de pacientes de terapia intensiva. Métodos Estudo realizado ao longo de 6 anos em uma unidade de terapia intensiva médico-cirúrgica de 40 leitos, em um hospital privado e de nível terciário em São Paulo, Brasil. O Grupo Caso foi identificado usando o banco de dados da Comissão de Controle de Infecção Hospitalar. O Grupo Controle foi pareado na proporção de 1:8,8 entre janeiro de 2006 e dezembro de 2011. Resultados Quarenta episódios de traqueobronquites associadas à ventilação foram avaliados em 40 pacientes na unidade de terapia intensiva, e 354 pacientes não apresentaram traqueobronquite Grupo Controle. Foram identificados 42 microrganismos (dos quais 5% foram infecções polimicrobianas), sendo que 88,2% de todos os microrganismos eram bactérias Gram-negativas. Usando um modelo de regressão logística, encontramos os seguintes fatores de risco independentes para mortalidade em pacientes com traqueobronquites associadas à ventilação: pontuação da Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation I (odds ratio 1,18 por uma unidade de pontuação; IC95%: 1,05-1,38; p=0,01) e duração da ventilação mecânica (odds ratio 1,09 por dia de ventilação mecânica; IC95%: 1,03-1,17; p=0,004). Conclusão Nosso estudo forneceu informações sobre os fatores de risco para mortalidade e características microbiológicas da traqueobronquite associada à ventilação mecânica.

A hospital-based matched case-control study to identify clinical outcome and risk factors associated with carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae infection.

BACKGROUND: Healthcare-associated infections caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates are increasing and few effective antibiotics are currently available to treat patients. We observed decreased carbapenem susceptibility among K. pneumoniae isolated from patients at a tertiary private hospital that showed a phenotype compatible with carbapenemase production although this group of enzymes was not detected in any sample. The aim of this study was to describe the epidemiology and clinical outcomes associated with carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae and to determine the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms. METHODS: Risk factors associated with carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae infections were investigated by a matched case-control study from January 2006 through August 2008. A cohort study was also performed to evaluate the association between carbapenem resistance and in-hospital mortality. Bacterial identification and antimicrobial susceptibility were determined by Vitek 2 and Etest. Carbapenemase activity was detected using spectrophotometric assays. Production of beta-lactamases and alterations in genes encoding K. pneumoniae outer membrane proteins, OmpK35 and OmpK36, were analyzed by PCR and DNA sequencing, as well as SDS-Page. Genetic relatedness of carbapenem resistant isolates was evaluated by Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis. RESULTS: Sixty patients were included (20 cases and 40 controls) in the study. Mortality was higher for patients with carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae infections compared with those with carbapenem-susceptible K. pneumoniae (50.0% vs 25.7%). The length of central venous catheter use was independently associated with carbapenem resistance in the multivariable analysis. All strains, except one, carried blaCTX-M-2, an extended-spectrum betalactamase gene. In addition, a single isolate also possessed blaGES-1. Genes encoding plasmid-mediated AmpC beta-lactamases or carbapenemases (KPC, metallo-betalactamases or OXA-carbapenemases) were not detected. CONCLUSIONS: The K. pneumoniae multidrug-resistant organisms were associated with significant mortality. The mechanisms associated with decreased K. pneumoniae carbapenem susceptibility were likely due to the presence of cephalosporinases coupled with porin alterations, which resulted from the presence of the insertion sequences in the outer membrane encoding genes.

A program for sustained improvement in preventing ventilator associated pneumonia in an intensive care setting.

BACKGROUND: Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is a common infection in the intensive care unit (ICU) and associated with a high mortality. METHODS: A quasi-experimental study was conducted in a medical-surgical ICU. Multiple interventions to optimize VAP prevention were performed from October 2008 to December 2010. All of these processes, including the Institute for Healthcare Improvement's (IHI) ventilator bundle plus oral decontamination with chlorhexidine and continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions (CASS), were adopted for patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. RESULTS: We evaluated a total of 21,984 patient-days, and a total of 6,052 ventilator-days (ventilator utilization rate of 0.27). We found VAP rates of 1.3 and 2.0 per 1,000 ventilator days respectively in 2009 and 2010, achieving zero incidence of VAP several times during 12 months, whenever VAP bundle compliance was over 90%. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that it is possible to reduce VAP rates to near zero and sustain these rates, but it requires a complex process involving multiple performance measures and interventions that must be permanently monitored.

Bloodstream Infection in the Intensive Care Unit: Preventable Adverse Events and Cost Savings.

OBJECTIVES: Central line associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs) impose a significant economic burden for patients admitted to the intensive care unit for adults (AICU). The objectives of the study were to evaluate the excess length of stay and extra costs attributable to CLABSIs diagnosed in the AICU. METHODS: Cases were selected as patients admitted to AICU from 2006 through 2009, who developed a CLABSI episode. These were matched (1:1) with appropriate controls. Matching criteria were selected to exclude other factors that could influence cost and care practices. The length of stay and resources used between AICU admission and discharge and until hospital discharge or death were measured. Incremental costs and lengths of stay were calculated for each pair of patients. RESULTS: Thirty cases and 30 controls were included in the study. A CLABSI episode resulted in an additional 10.5 days in the AICU and 9.1 days after AICU discharge, totaling an additional 19.6 days. The incremental cost associated with a CLABSI episode was US $65,993 in the AICU and US $23,893 after AICU discharge, totaling an incremental cost of US $89,886. CONCLUSIONS: By avoiding CLABSI events, cost offsets would be expected for payers with revenue losses to providers. An approach of sharing the gains resulting from preventive measures could be used to incentivize providers to maintain those investments, benefiting patients who will have a reduced risk of CLABSI development.

Successful prevention of tracheostomy associated pneumonia in step-down units.

BACKGROUND: Prevention of health care-associated infections is well described in critical care. However, surveillance in step-down unit (SDU) patients who need intermediate care with bilevel mechanical ventilation pressure through tracheotomy needs to be better understood. We evaluated the implementation of preventive measures in SDU over 2 different periods on device (bilevel mechanical ventilation)-associated pneumonia. METHODS: A quasi-experimental, interrupted time series study was conducted in SDUs. Interventions were implemented to optimize the prevention of pneumonia associated with tracheostomy and evaluated in 2 phases. From January to October of 2007 (phase 1), some practices recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were implemented, and the epidemiology unit carried out surveillance for pneumonia associated with tracheostomy. From November of 2007 to August of 2008 (phase 2) the same practices recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were followed, but, in addition, the assessment of these processes as well as bedside interventions were initiated. RESULTS: The mean incidence density of tracheostomy associated pneumonia per 1,000 tracheostomy-days in the SDUs was 6.0 in phase 1 and 0.7 in phase 2, P = .002. CONCLUSION: Reducing pneumonia associated with tracheostomy is a continuous multidisciplinary process that involves the measurement of multiple performance metrics.

Positive deviance: a program for sustained improvement in hand hygiene compliance.

BACKGROUND: There is a paucity of data evaluating whether positive deviance (PD) can sustain improvement in hand hygiene compliance. METHODS: An observational study comparing the effect of PD on compliance with hand hygiene was conducted in two 20-bed step-down units (SDUs) at a private tertiary care hospital. In a 3-month baseline period (April-June 2008), hand hygiene counts were performed by electronic handwashing counters. Between July 1, 2008, and November 30, 2009, (East SDU) and between September 30, 2008, and December 2009 (West SDU), PD was applied in both units. RESULTS: There was more than a 2-fold difference in the number of alcohol gel aliquots dispensed per month from April 2008 (before PD) to November 2009 (last month in PD) in the East SDU. There was also a 2-fold difference in the number of alcohol gel aliquots dispensed per month from September 2008 (before PD) to December 2009 (last month in PD) in the West SDU. The difference in the rate of health care‒associated infections (HAIs) between the baseline period and 2009 was statistically significant in the East SDU (5.8 vs 2.8 per 1,000 device-days; P = .008) and in the West SDU (3.7 vs 1.7 per 1,000 device-days; P = .023). CONCLUSIONS: PD was responsible for a sustained improvement in hand hygiene in the inpatient setting and was associated with a decrease in the incidence of device-associated HAIs.

Secular trends of candidemia in a tertiary care hospital.

BACKGROUND: Candidemias account for 8% to 15% of hospital-acquired bloodstream infections. They have been associated with previous exposure to antimicrobials and are considered high-morbidity infections with high treatment costs. This study characterizes candidemias in a tertiary care hospital and assesses their incidence rates, clinical and microbiological features, and use of antifungals. METHODS: We assessed hospital-acquired candidemias in the period from January 1997 to July 2007 in a high-complexity private hospital. RESULTS: There were 151 cases of candidemia in 147 patients. The incidence rate was 0.74 episodes/1000 admissions. The mean age of the patients was 60 years (standard deviation +/- 24.9), and the mean length of hospital stay before the blood culture identified candidemia was 40.9 days (standard deviation +/- 86.3). The in-hospital mortality rate was 44.2%. C albicans was isolated in 44% (n = 67) of the cases, and no difference in mortality rates was found between species (Candida albicans vs C non-albicans, P = .6). The average use of antifungals in the period was 104.0 defined daily dose/1000 patient-days. CONCLUSION: We found a high mortality rate associated to candidemia events and an increasingly important role of Candida non-albicans. New approaches to health care-related infection control and to defining prophylactic and preemptive therapies should change this scenario in the future.

Low compliance with alcohol gel compared with chlorhexidine for hand hygiene in ICU patients: results of an alcohol gel implementation program

Although the introduction of alcohol based products have increased compliance with hand hygiene in intensive care units (ICU), no comparative studies with other products in the same unit and in the same period have been conducted. We performed a two-month-observational prospective study comparing three units in an adult ICU, according to hand hygiene practices (chlorhexidine alone-unit A, both chlorhexidine and alcohol gel-unit B, and alcohol gel alone-unit C, respectively). Opportunities for hand hygiene were considered according to an institutional guideline. Patients were randomly allocated in the 3 units and data on hand hygiene compliance was collected without the knowledge of the health care staff. TISS score (used for measuring patient complexity) was similar between the three different units. Overall compliance with hand hygiene was 46.7 percent (659/1410). Compliance was significantly higher after patient care in unit A when compared to units B and C. On the other hand, compliance was significantly higher only between units A (32.1 percent) and C (23.1 percent) before patient care (p=0.02). Higher compliance rates were observed for general opportunities for hand hygiene (patient bathing, vital sign controls, etc), while very low compliance rates were observed for opportunities related to skin and gastroenteral care. One of the reasons for not using alcohol gel according to health care workers was the necessity for water contact (35.3 percent, 12/20). Although the use of alcohol based products is now the standard practice for hand hygiene the abrupt abolition of hand hygiene with traditional products may not be recommended for specific services.

Successful prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in an intensive care setting.

BACKGROUND: Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is one of the most common health care-associated infections (HAIs) in critical care settings. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to examine the effect of a series of interventions, implemented in 3 different periods to reduce the incidence of VAP in an intensive care unit (ICU). METHODS: A quasiexperimental study was conducted in a medical-surgical ICU. Multiple interventions to optimize VAP prevention were performed during different phases. From March 2001 to December 2002 (phase 1: P1), some Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) evidence-based practices were implemented. From January 2003 to December 2006 (P2), we intervened in these processes at the same time that performance monitoring was occurring at the bedside, and, from January 2007 to September 2008 (P3), we continued P2 interventions and implemented the Institute for Healthcare Improvement's ventilator bundle plus oral decontamination with chlorhexidine and continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions. RESULTS: The incidence density of VAP in the ICU per 1000 patient-days was 16.4 in phase 1, 15.0 in phase 2, and 10.4 in phase 3, P=.05. Getting to zero VAP was possible only in P3 when compliance with all interventions exceeded 95%. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that reducing VAP rates to zero is a complex process that involves multiple performance measures and interventions.

The effect of limiting antimicrobial therapy duration on antimicrobial resistance in the critical care setting.

BACKGROUND: Using antimicrobial agents for prolonged periods of time and/or in heavy densities is known to contribute to antimicrobial resistance. METHODS: A quasiexperimental, before and after study to limit the duration of antimicrobial therapy to 14 days was conducted in a medical-surgical intensive care unit (ICU). An intervention to optimize antimicrobial therapy was performed when antimicrobial agents had been prescribed for more than 14 days. We then compared antimicrobial utilization using the defined daily dose (DDD) per 1000 patient-days, as well as resistance rates in selected organisms in the intervention phase to the previous 10-month period. RESULTS: In the intervention phase, doctors approved to discontinue the antimicrobial therapy before 14 days in 89.8% (415/462) of the prescribed antibiotics in the ICU. Comparing the 2 time periods, we found a reduction in carbapenems (24.5% decrease), vancomycin (14.3% decrease), and cephalosporins (12.2% decrease) in the intervention phase. Imipenem resistance decreased in Acinetobacter baumannii from 88.5% to 20.0% (P

Low compliance with alcohol gel compared with chlorhexidine for hand hygiene in ICU patients: results of an alcohol gel implementation program.

Although the introduction of alcohol based products have increased compliance with hand hygiene in intensive care units (ICU), no comparative studies with other products in the same unit and in the same period have been conducted. We performed a two-month-observational prospective study comparing three units in an adult ICU, according to hand hygiene practices (chlorhexidine alone-unit A, both chlorhexidine and alcohol gel-unit B, and alcohol gel alone-unit C, respectively). Opportunities for hand hygiene were considered according to an institutional guideline. Patients were randomly allocated in the 3 units and data on hand hygiene compliance was collected without the knowledge of the health care staff. TISS score (used for measuring patient complexity) was similar between the three different units. Overall compliance with hand hygiene was 46.7% (659/1410). Compliance was significantly higher after patient care in unit A when compared to units B and C. On the other hand, compliance was significantly higher only between units A (32.1%) and C (23.1%) before patient care (p=0.02). Higher compliance rates were observed for general opportunities for hand hygiene (patient bathing, vital sign controls, etc), while very low compliance rates were observed for opportunities related to skin and gastroenteral care. One of the reasons for not using alcohol gel according to health care workers was the necessity for water contact (35.3%, 12/20). Although the use of alcohol based products is now the standard practice for hand hygiene the abrupt abolition of hand hygiene with traditional products may not be recommended for specific services.

Controlled trial measuring the effect of a feedback intervention on hand hygiene compliance in a step-down unit.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate hand hygiene compliance in 2 adult step-down units (SDUs). DESIGN: A 6-month (from March to September 2007), controlled trial comparing 2 SDUs, one with a feedback intervention program (ie, the intervention unit) and one without (ie, the control unit). SETTING: Two 20-bed SDUs at a tertiary care private hospital. METHODS: Hand hygiene episodes were measured by electronic recording devices and periodic observational surveys. In the intervention unit, feedback was provided by the SDU nurse manager, who explained twice a week to the healthcare workers the goals and targets for the process measures. RESULTS: A total of 117,579 hand hygiene episodes were recorded in the intervention unit, and a total of 110,718 were recorded in the control unit (P = .63). There was no significant difference in the amount of chlorhexidine used in the intervention and control units (34.0 vs 26.7 L per 1,000 patient-days; P = .36) or the amount of alcohol gel used (72.5 vs 70.7 L per 1,000 patient-days; P = .93). However, in both units, healthcare workers used alcohol gel more frequently than chlorhexidine (143.2 vs 60.7 L per 1,000 patient-days; P < .001). Nosocomial infection rates in the intervention and control units, respectively, were as follows: for bloodstream infection, 3.5 and 0.79 infections per 1,000 catheter-days (P = .18); for urinary tract infection, 15.8 and 15.7 infections per 1,000 catheter-days (P = .99); and for tracheostomy-associated pneumonia, 10.7 and 5.1 infections per 1,000 device-days (P = .13). There were no cases of infection with vancomycin-resistant enterococci and only a single case of infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (in the control unit). CONCLUSIONS: The feedback intervention regarding hand hygiene had no significant effect on the rate of compliance. Other measures must be used to increase and sustain the rate of hand hygiene compliance.